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<title>Algorithmic composition</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Algorithmic composition</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Music synthesizer" redirects here. For sound synthesizer, see <a href="Synthesizer" title="Synthesizer">Synthesizer</a>.</div>

<p><b>Algorithmic composition</b> is the technique of using <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> to create <a href="Music" title="Music">music</a>.

</p><p>Algorithms (or, at the very least, formal sets of rules) have been used to <a href="Composer" title="Composer">compose</a> music for centuries; the procedures used to plot <a href="Voice_leading" title="Voice leading">voice-leading</a> in Western <a href="Counterpoint" title="Counterpoint">counterpoint</a>, for example, can often be reduced to algorithmic determinacy. The term can be used to describe music-generating techniques that run without ongoing human intervention, for example through the introduction of <a href="Randomness" title="Randomness">chance</a> procedures. However through <a href="Live_coding" title="Live coding">live coding</a> and other interactive interfaces, a fully human-centric approach to algorithmic composition is possible.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Some algorithms or data that have no immediate musical relevance are used by composers<sup id="cite_ref-Music_Algorithm_Composition_Inspiration_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Music_Algorithm_Composition_Inspiration-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as creative inspiration for their music. Algorithms such as <a href="Fractal" title="Fractal">fractals</a>, <a href="L-system" title="L-system">L-systems</a>, <a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">statistical models</a>, and even arbitrary <a href="Data" title="Data">data</a> (e.g. <a href="Census" title="Census">census</a> figures, <a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">GIS</a> coordinates, or <a href="Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> measurements) have been used as source materials.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Models">Models</h2></div>

<p>Compositional algorithms are usually classified by the specific <a href="Programming_(music)" title="Programming (music)">programming</a> techniques they use. The results of the process can then be divided into 1) music composed by computer and 2) music composed with the aid of computer. Music may be considered <a href="Computer_music" title="Computer music">composed by computer</a> when the algorithm is able to make choices of its own during the creation process.

</p><p>Another way to sort compositional algorithms is to examine the results of their compositional processes. Algorithms can either 1) provide notational information (<a href="Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">sheet music</a> or <a href="MIDI" title="MIDI">MIDI</a>) for other instruments or 2) provide an independent way of <a href="Sound_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound synthesis">sound synthesis</a> (playing the composition by itself). There are also algorithms creating both notational data and sound synthesis.

</p><p>One way to categorize compositional algorithms is by their structure and the way of processing data, as seen in this model of six partly overlapping types:<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulos_and_Wiggins_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulos_and_Wiggins-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li>mathematical models</li>

<li>knowledge-based systems</li>

<li>grammars</li>

<li>evolutionary methods</li>

<li><a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">systems which learn</a></li>

<li>hybrid systems</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translational_models">Translational models</h3></div>

<p>This is an approach to music synthesis that involves "translating" information from an existing non-musical medium into a new sound. The translation can be either rule-based or <a href="Stochastic" title="Stochastic">stochastic</a>. For example, when translating a picture into sound, a <a href="JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</a> image of a horizontal line may be interpreted in sound as a constant pitch, while an upwards-slanted line may be an ascending scale. Oftentimes, the software seeks to extract concepts or metaphors from the medium, (such as height or sentiment) and apply the extracted information to generate songs using the ways music theory typically represents those concepts. Another example is the translation of text into music,<sup id="cite_ref-TransProse:_Generating_Music_From_Text_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TransProse:_Generating_Music_From_Text-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Generating_Music_From_Text_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Generating_Music_From_Text-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can approach composition by extracting sentiment (positive or negative) from the text using <a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> methods like <a href="Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">sentiment analysis</a> and represents that sentiment in terms of chord quality such as minor (sad) or major (happy) chords in the musical output generated.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematical_models">Mathematical models</h3></div>

<p>Mathematical models are based on mathematical <a href="Equation" title="Equation">equations</a> and random events. The most common way to create compositions through mathematics is <a href="Stochastic_process" title="Stochastic process">stochastic processes</a>. In stochastic models a piece of music is composed as a result of non-<a href="Deterministic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic">deterministic</a> methods. The compositional process is only partially controlled by the composer by weighting the possibilities of random events. Prominent examples of stochastic algorithms are <a href="Markov_chain" title="Markov chain">Markov chains</a> and various uses of <a href="Gaussian_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaussian distribution">Gaussian distributions</a>. Stochastic algorithms are often used together with other algorithms in various decision-making processes.

</p><p>Music has also been composed through natural phenomena. These chaotic models create compositions from the <a href="Harmonic" title="Harmonic">harmonic</a> and inharmonic phenomena of nature. For example, since the 1970s <a href="Fractal" title="Fractal">fractals</a> have been studied also as models for algorithmic composition.

</p><p>As an example of deterministic compositions through mathematical models, the <a href="On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences" title="On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences">On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences</a> provides an option to play an <a href="Integer_sequence" title="Integer sequence">integer sequence</a> as <a href="12-tone_equal_temperament" class="mw-redirect" title="12-tone equal temperament">12-tone equal temperament</a> music. (It is initially set to convert each integer to a note on an 88-key <a href="Musical_keyboard" title="Musical keyboard">musical keyboard</a> by computing the integer <a href="Modulo" title="Modulo">modulo</a> 88, at a steady rhythm. Thus 123456, the natural numbers, equals half of a chromatic scale.) As another example, the all-interval series has been used for computer-aided composition.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge-based_systems">Knowledge-based systems</h3></div>

<p>One way to create compositions is to isolate the aesthetic code of a certain musical genre and use this code to create new similar compositions. <a href="Knowledge-based_systems" title="Knowledge-based systems">Knowledge-based systems</a> are based on a pre-made set of arguments that can be used to compose new works of the same style or genre. Usually this is accomplished by a set of tests or rules requiring fulfillment for the composition to be complete.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammars">Grammars</h3></div>

<p>Music can also be examined as a language with a distinctive <a href="Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> set. Compositions are created by first constructing a musical grammar, which is then used to create comprehensible musical pieces. Grammars often include rules for macro-level composing, for instance <a href="Harmonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonies">harmonies</a> and <a href="Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythm</a>, rather than single notes.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optimization_approaches">Optimization approaches</h3></div>

<p>When generating well defined styles, music can be seen as a combinatorial optimization problem, whereby the aim is to find the right combination of notes such that the objective function is minimized. This objective function typically contains rules of a particular style, but could be learned using machine learning methods such as Markov models.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers have generated music using a myriad of different optimization methods, including integer programming,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> variable neighbourhood search,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and evolutionary methods as mentioned in the next subsection.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_methods">Evolutionary methods</h3></div>

<p><a href="Evolutionary_music" title="Evolutionary music">Evolutionary methods of composing music</a> are based on <a href="Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic algorithm">genetic algorithms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The composition is being built by the means of <a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> process. Through <a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> and <a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, different solutions evolve towards a suitable musical piece. Iterative action of the algorithm cuts out bad solutions and creates new ones from those surviving the process. The results of the process are supervised by the critic, a vital part of the algorithm controlling the quality of created compositions.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evo-Devo_approach">Evo-Devo approach</h3></div>

<p><a href="Evolutionary_algorithm" title="Evolutionary algorithm">Evolutionary</a> methods, combined with developmental processes, constitute the <i>evo-devo</i> approach for generation and optimization of complex structures. These methods have also been applied to music composition, where the musical structure is obtained by an iterative process that transform a very simple composition (made of a few notes) into a complex fully-fledged piece (be it a score, or a MIDI file).<sup id="cite_ref-Nature_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nature-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AI_survey_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AI_survey-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systems_that_learn">Systems that learn</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Machine_improvisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine improvisation">Machine improvisation</a>, <a href="Machine_listening" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine listening">Machine listening</a>, and <a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></div>

<p>Learning systems are programs that have no given knowledge of the genre of music they are working with. Instead, they collect the learning material by themselves from the example material supplied by the user or programmer. The material is then processed into a piece of music similar to the example material. This method of algorithmic composition is strongly linked to algorithmic modeling of style,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Machine_improvisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine improvisation">machine improvisation</a>, and such studies as <a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> and the study of <a href="Neural_network_(machine_learning)" title="Neural network (machine learning)">neural networks</a>. Assayag and Dubnov<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed a variable length <a href="Markov_model" title="Markov model">Markov model</a> to learn motif and phrase continuations of different length. Marchini and Purwins<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> presented a system that learns the structure of an audio recording of a rhythmical percussion fragment using unsupervised clustering and variable length Markov chains and that synthesizes musical variations from it.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybrid_systems">Hybrid systems</h3></div>

<p>Programs based on a single algorithmic model rarely succeed in creating aesthetically satisfying results. For that reason algorithms of different type are often used together to combine the strengths and diminish the weaknesses of these algorithms. Creating hybrid systems for music composition has opened up the field of algorithmic composition and created also many brand new ways to construct compositions algorithmically. The only major problem with hybrid systems is their growing complexity and the need of resources to combine and test these algorithms.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Another approach, which can be called <i>computer-assisted composition</i>, is to algorithmically create certain structures for finally "hand-made" compositions. As early as in the 1960s, <a href="Gottfried_Michael_Koenig" title="Gottfried Michael Koenig">Gottfried Michael Koenig</a> developed computer programs <i>Project 1</i> and <i>Project 2</i> for <a href="Aleatoric_music" title="Aleatoric music">aleatoric music</a>, the output of which was sensibly structured "manually" by means of performance instructions. In the 2000s, <a href="Andranik_Tangian" title="Andranik Tangian">Andranik Tangian</a> developed a computer algorithm to determine the time event structures for <a href="Canon_(music)" title="Canon (music)">rhythmic canons</a> and rhythmic fugues,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

which were then worked out into harmonic compositions <i>Eine kleine Mathmusik I</i> and <i>Eine kleine Mathmusik II</i>; for scores and recordings see.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<li><a href="Change_ringing" title="Change ringing">Change ringing</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_creativity" title="Computational creativity">Computational creativity</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Cope" title="David Cope">David Cope</a></li>

<li><a href="Euclidean_rhythm" title="Euclidean rhythm">Euclidean rhythm</a> (traditional musical rhythms that are generated by <a href="Euclid's_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Euclid's algorithm">Euclid's algorithm</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Generative_music" title="Generative music">Generative music</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_dice_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Musical dice game">Musical dice game</a></li>

<li><a href="Pop_music_automation" title="Pop music automation">Pop music automation</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_music_software" title="List of music software">List of music software</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-algorithmic-music-9780190226992?cc=us&lang=en&"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Algorithmic Music</i></a>. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 2018-02-15. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780190226992</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Music_Algorithm_Composition_Inspiration-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Music_Algorithm_Composition_Inspiration_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJacob1996" class="citation journal cs1">Jacob, Bruce L. (December 1996). "Algorithmic Composition as a Model of Creativity". <i><a href="Organised_Sound" title="Organised Sound">Organised Sound</a></i>. <b>1</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">157–</span>165. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771896000222">10.1017/S1355771896000222</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1903%2F7435">1903/7435</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15546277">15546277</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-TransProse:_Generating_Music_From_Text-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TransProse:_Generating_Music_From_Text_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2014" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Hannah (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arxiv-1403.2124">"Generating Music from Literature"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the EACL Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature</i>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1403.2124">1403.2124</a></span>. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014arXiv1403.2124D">2014arXiv1403.2124D</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3115%2Fv1%2FW14-0901">10.3115/v1/W14-0901</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9028922">9028922</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Generating_Music_From_Text-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Generating_Music_From_Text_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.musicfromtext.com/">"Generating Music from Text"</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mauricio Toro, Carlos Agon, Camilo Rueda, Gerard Assayag. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jatit.org/volumes/Vol86No2/17Vol86No2.pdf">GELISP: A Framework to Represent Musical Constraint Satisfaction Problems and Search Strategies</a>." <i>Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology</i> 86 (2). 2016. 327–331.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1997" class="citation magazine cs1">Brown, Silas (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssb22.user.srcf.net/clara/article.htm">"Algorithmic Composition and Reductionist Analysis: Can a Machine Compose?"</a>. <i>CamNotes</i>. Cambridge University New Music Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHerremans,_D.Weisser,_S.Sörensen,_K.Conklin,_D.2015" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Dorien_Herremans" title="Dorien Herremans">Herremans, D.</a>; Weisser, S.; Sörensen, K.; Conklin, D. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.uantwerpen.be/docman/irua/f18aa4/13ae3a29.pdf">"Generating structured music for bagana using quality metrics based on Markov models"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Expert Systems with Applications</i>. <b>42</b> (21): <span class="nowrap">7424–</span>7435. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2015.05.043">10.1016/j.eswa.2015.05.043</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10067%2F1274260151162165141">10067/1274260151162165141</a></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCunha,_Nailson_dos_SantosAnand_SubramanianDorien_Herremans2018" class="citation journal cs1">Cunha, Nailson dos Santos; Anand Subramanian; <a href="Dorien_Herremans" title="Dorien Herremans">Dorien Herremans</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dorienherremans.com/sites/default/files/preprint_guitar_solo_generation_dh.pdf">"Generating guitar solos by integer programming"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society" title="Journal of the Operational Research Society">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a></i>. <b>69</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">971–</span>985. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01605682.2017.1390528">10.1080/01605682.2017.1390528</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51888815">51888815</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHerremans,_D.Sörensen,_K.2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Dorien_Herremans" title="Dorien Herremans">Herremans, D.</a>; Sörensen, K. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.uantwerpen.be/docman/irua/93e44d/cff18030.pdf">"Composing fifth species counterpoint music with a variable neighborhood search algorithm"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Expert Systems with Applications</i>. <b>40</b> (16): <span class="nowrap">6427–</span>6437. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2013.05.071">10.1016/j.eswa.2013.05.071</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Fox 2006 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220330045047/https://www.aaai.org/Papers/FLAIRS/2006/Flairs06-047.pdf">Genetic Hierarchical Music Structures</a> (<a href="American_Association_for_Artificial_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association for Artificial Intelligence">American Association for Artificial Intelligence</a>)</span>

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<li id="cite_note-Nature-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nature_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBall2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Philip_Ball" title="Philip Ball">Ball, Philip</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F488458a">"Algorithmic Rapture"</a>. <i><a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>188</b> (7412): 456. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F488458a">10.1038/488458a</a></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-AI_survey-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AI_survey_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFernandezVico2013" class="citation journal cs1">Fernandez, JD; Vico, F (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1613%2Fjair.3908">"AI Methods in Algorithmic Composition: A Comprehensive Survey"</a>. <i><a href="Journal_of_Artificial_Intelligence_Research" title="Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research">Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research</a></i>. <b>48</b>: <span class="nowrap">513–</span>582. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1402.0585">1402.0585</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1613%2Fjair.3908">10.1613/jair.3908</a></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Dubnov, G. Assayag, O. Lartillot, G. Bejerano, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms2.unige.ch/fapse/neuroemo/pdf/JournalDubnov.pdf">Using Machine-Learning Methods for Musical Style Modeling</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170810025000/http://cms2.unige.ch/fapse/neuroemo/pdf/JournalDubnov.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-08-10 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i>IEEE Computers</i>, 36 (10), pp. 73–80, October 2003.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Assayag, S. Dubnov, O. Delerue, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.ircam.fr/textes/Assayag99a/index.pdf">Guessing the Composer's Mind : Applying Universal Prediction to Musical Style</a>", in <i>Proceedings of International Computer Music Conference</i>, Beijing, 1999.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMarchiniPurwins2011" class="citation book cs1">Marchini, Marco; Purwins, Hendrik (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-23126-1_14">"Unsupervised Analysis and Generation of Audio Percussion Sequences"</a>. <i>Exploring Music Contents</i>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6684. pp. <span class="nowrap">205–</span>218. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-23126-1_14">10.1007/978-3-642-23126-1_14</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-23125-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTangian2002–2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Andranik_Tangian" title="Andranik Tangian">Tangian, Andranik</a> (2002–2003). "Eine kleine Mathmusik I and II". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repmus.ircam.fr/mamux/saisons/saison01-2001-2002/2002-02-09"><i>IRCAM, Seminaire MaMuX, 9 February 2002, Mosaïques et pavages dans la musique</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 16,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2011/7/109891-algorithmic-composition/fulltext">"Algorithmic Composition: Computational Thinking in Music"</a> by <a href="Michael_Edwards_(British_composer)" title="Michael Edwards (British composer)">Michael Edwards</a>. <i><a href="Communications_of_the_ACM" title="Communications of the ACM">Communications of the ACM</a></i>, vol. 54, no. 7, pp. 58–67, July 2011 <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1965724.1965742">10.1145/1965724.1965742</a></li>

<li><a href="Karlheinz_Essl" class="mw-redirect" title="Karlheinz Essl">Karlheinz Essl</a>: <i>Algorithmic Composition.</i> in: <i><a href="Cambridge_Companions_to_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Companions to Music">Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music</a></i>, ed. by Nicholas Collins and Julio d'Escrivan, Cambridge University Press 2007. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-68865-9</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.essl.at/bibliogr/algo-comp.html">Abstract</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sourceforge.net/p/musicalgorithm1/">Computer Music Algorithms</a> by Dr. John Francis. Music algorithmic computer programs representing all styles of music, with C source code, produces midi files. 19th ed 2019, now contain 57 programs, 20 styles, and 24 chapters.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=3108242">"A Functional Taxonomy of Music Generation systems"</a> by <a href="Dorien_Herremans" title="Dorien Herremans">Dorien Herremans</a>, Ching-Hua Chuang and <a href="Elaine_Chew" title="Elaine Chew">Elaine Chew</a>. <i><a href="ACM_Computing_Surveys" title="ACM Computing Surveys">ACM Computing Surveys</a></i>, vol. 55, no. 5, pp. 69:1–30 <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3108242">10.1145/3108242</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Eduardo_Reck_Miranda" title="Eduardo Reck Miranda">Eduardo Reck Miranda</a>: <i>Composing Music with Computers.</i> Focal Press 2001</li>

<li>Gerhard Nierhaus: <i>Algorithmic Composition – Paradigms of Automated Music Generation.</i> Springer 2008. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-211-75539-6</bdi></li>

<li>Curtis Roads: <i>The Computer Music Tutorial.</i> MIT Press 1996. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780262680820</bdi>.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://computationalcreativity.net/iccc2012/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/160-Smith.pdf">"Automatic Composition from Non-musical Inspiration Sources"</a>, by Robert Smith, et al.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/computer_music_journal/v025/25.1supper.html">"A Few Remarks on Algorithmic Composition"</a> by Martin Supper. <i><a href="Computer_Music_Journal" title="Computer Music Journal">Computer Music Journal</a></i> 25.1 (2001) 48–53</li>

<li>Phil Winsor and Gene De Lisa: <i>Computer Music in C.</i> Windcrest 1990. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-57441-116-4</bdi></li>

<li>Wooller, Rene, Brown, Andrew R, Miranda, Eduardo, Diederich, Joachim, & Berry, Rodney (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.qut.edu.au/6544/">"A framework for comparison of process in algorithmic music systems."</a> In: <i>Generative Arts Practice</i>, 5–7 December 2005, Sydney, Australia.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rwm.macba.cat/en/composingwithprocess_tag">"Composing with Process: Perspectives on Generative and Systems Music"</a>, podcast</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Algorithmic_compositions" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Algorithmic compositions">Algorithmic compositions</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/54910233">Drew Krause: Introduction to Algorithmic Composition</a> on <a href="Vimeo" title="Vimeo">Vimeo</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.algorithmiccomposer.com/">Algorithmic Composer</a>, series of algorithmic composition tutorials</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://algocomp.blogspot.com/">Instructional Guides</a> by Christopher Dobrian</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Computer_music80" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Computer_music" title="Computer music">Computer music</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Marc_Battier" title="Marc Battier">Marc Battier</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Boulanger" title="Richard Boulanger">Richard Boulanger</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Cope" title="David Cope">David Cope</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Chowning" title="John Chowning">John Chowning</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_di_Giugno" title="Giuseppe di Giugno">Giuseppe di Giugno</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Dodge_(composer)" title="Charles Dodge (composer)">Charles Dodge</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Michael_Koenig" title="Gottfried Michael Koenig">Gottfried Michael Koenig</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Lansky" title="Paul Lansky">Paul Lansky</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Mathews" title="Max Mathews">Max Mathews</a></li>

<li><a href="G%C3%A9rard_Pape" title="Gérard Pape">Gérard Pape</a></li>

<li><a href="Miller_Puckette" title="Miller Puckette">Miller Puckette</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Reynolds" title="Roger Reynolds">Roger Reynolds</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Claude_Risset" title="Jean-Claude Risset">Jean-Claude Risset</a></li>

<li><a href="Curtis_Roads" title="Curtis Roads">Curtis Roads</a></li>

<li><a href="Laurie_Spiegel" title="Laurie Spiegel">Laurie Spiegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Trimpin" title="Trimpin">Trimpin</a></li>

<li><a href="Barry_Vercoe" title="Barry Vercoe">Barry Vercoe</a></li>

<li><a href="Iannis_Xenakis" title="Iannis Xenakis">Iannis Xenakis</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="CSIRAC" title="CSIRAC"></a></span>

<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Stanford_University_centers_and_institutes#Center_for_Computer_Research_in_Music_and_Acoustics" title="Stanford University centers and institutes"></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Programs and<br>instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ChucK" title="ChucK">ChucK</a></li>

<li><a href="Composers_Desktop_Project" title="Composers Desktop Project">Composers Desktop Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Csound" title="Csound">Csound</a></li>

<li><a href="FAUST_(programming_language)" title="FAUST (programming language)">FAUST</a></li>

<li><a href="Laptop_orchestra" title="Laptop orchestra">Laptop orchestra</a></li>

<li><a href="MIDI_controller" title="MIDI controller">MIDI controller</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_Mouse" title="Music Mouse">Music Mouse</a></li>

<li><a href="MUSIC-N" title="MUSIC-N">MUSIC-N</a></li>

<li><a href="Radiodrum" title="Radiodrum">Radiodrum</a></li>

<li><a href="Riffusion" title="Riffusion">Riffusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonic_Pi" title="Sonic Pi">Sonic Pi</a></li>

<li><a href="SuperCollider" title="SuperCollider">SuperCollider</a></li>

<li><a href="TidalCycles" title="TidalCycles">TidalCycles</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Stanford_University_centers_and_institutes#Center_for_Computer_Research_in_Music_and_Acoustics" title="Stanford University centers and institutes">CCRMA</a></li>

<li><a href="CCMIX" title="CCMIX">CEMAMu</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_Music_Center" title="Computer Music Center">Computer Music Center at Columbia</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_Music_Studios" title="Experimental Music Studios">Experimental Music Studios</a></li>

<li><a href="IRCAM" title="IRCAM">IRCAM</a></li>

<li><a href="Center_for_New_Music_and_Audio_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for New Music and Audio Technologies">Center for New Music and Audio Technologies</a></li>

<li><a href="Princeton_Sound_Lab" title="Princeton Sound Lab">Princeton Sound Lab</a></li>

<li><a href="TIMARA" title="TIMARA">Oberlin TIMARA Labs</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Music_and_artificial_intelligence" title="Music and artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Synthesizer" title="Synthesizer">Sound synthesis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Digital_synthesizer" title="Digital synthesizer">Digital synthesis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Illiac_Suite" title="Illiac Suite">Illiac Suite</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Mortuos_Plango%2C_Vivos_Voco" title="Mortuos Plango, Vivos Voco">Mortuos Plango, Vivos Voco</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-16" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Algorithmic_composition&oldid=1300860048">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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